• Gupta Empire Coins
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The original coinage of the Ottomans consisted of small silver coins (akche, called asper by Europeans). Gold coins were not struck before the end of the 15th century; before and after that century, foreign gold, mainly the Venetian ducat, was used. A notable Ottoman innovation was the tughra, an elaborate monogram formed of the sultan’s name and titles, which occupies one side of the coin. Various European silver dollars also circulated extensively.

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• Byzantine currency, money used in the Eastern Roman Empire after the fall of the West, consisted of mainly two types of coins: the gold solidus and a variety of clearly valued bronze coins. By the end of the empire the currency was issued only in silver stavrata and minor copper coins with no gold issue. The East Roman or Byzantine Empire established and operated several mints throughout its.

Later Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkistan

Gupta Empire Coins

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The earlier coins of the shahs of Persia were large, thin silver pieces of Central Asian style, but in the 18th century the coins became smaller and thicker, as in India. Legends were usually in rhyming couplets; gold was scarce until the 18th century. Cities issued copper with local emblems.

The emirs of Afghanistan, who became independent of Persia in the 18th century, struck gold and silver on the standard of the Mughal emperors, whose poetic inscriptions they also copied. Of the various smaller modern dynasties that ruled Central Asia until the Russian conquest, the emirs of Bukhara and of Khokand were notable for their extensive issues in gold. From the 19th century gradual westernization resulted in the adoption of European types.

India

Ancient and early medieval. India derived the idea of coinage from the Greek world via Iran. The earliest coins were weighed from pieces of stamped silver and were decorated with stylized depictions of animals and plants. These coins were soon augmented by copper ones, some made in the same way, others by casting. These pieces circulated over most of northern India during the 4th to 1st centuries bc. From the 1st century bc onward there were also copper coinages of numerous small states, tribes, and dynasties, which show increasing Greek influence. Their few silver coins were directly influenced by the hemidrachms of the Greek rulers of northwestern India of the 1st century bc.

Early in the 2nd century bc the Greeks of Bactria began to invade India, and their coinage is remarkable for its fine series of portraits and for the number of names it records of rulers otherwise unknown. Prākrit legends began to appear alongside Greek and, as the Greek rulers were replaced by Central Asian invaders who copied their types, the Greek deities gradually gave place to local ones on the coins.

In the mid-1st century ad another group of Central Asian invaders, the Kushāns, founded a great empire in northwestern India; they left a wealth of gold and copper coins with legends in the Bactrian language, written in cursive Greek letters. Their coin types—of king on obverse and deity on reverse—became the general style of northern Indian coinage for the next 1,000 years. The type was continued by the kings of Kashmir to the 10th century and adopted, with modifications, by the great Gupta emperors in the 4th century. The Guptas struck an extensive gold coinage; among the more notable Gupta coins are those that commemorateChandra Gupta I’shorse sacrifice or depict him as a lyrist.

In western India a dynasty of satraps of Persian origin had been ruling since the 1st century ad. Their extensive silver coinage is dated and therefore of unusual historical value. This kingdom was overthrown by the Guptas at the end of the 4th century, and they at once began to imitate this silver coinage locally. The Huns (Hephthalites), who destroyed the Gupta and other smaller states in northern India in the 6th century, left numerous coins, imitated from Sāsānian, Gupta, or Kushān prototypes. Copies of these continued to circulate in parts of northern India until the revival of various Hindu dynasties from the 10th century onward. A notable adaptation of a Hun design was the neat silver coinage of the Shahis of Gandhara of the “bull and horseman” type in the 9th and 10th centuries, extensively imitated by the Muslim conquerors of India and the contemporary minor Hindu dynasties. The other type favoured by the medieval Hindu dynasties for their gold coinage was that of a seated goddess—going back to a Gupta reverse—and an inscription with the king’s name on the other side.

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The coinages of southern India form a class by themselves. In the later centuries bc and early ad, the Andhras ruled a great kingdom in central southern India; they issued coins mainly of lead but also of copper and silver with types based on Greek or local northern Indian designs.

The later medieval dynasties of southern India struck coinages mainly of gold, the type of which is usually the badge of the dynasty; the Cheras of Malabar, for example, had an elephant, the Chalukyas of the Deccan a boar, the Pandyas a fish, and the cup-shaped pieces of the Kadambas a lotus. The Chola dynasty introduced under northern influence the type of a king standing, on obverse, and, on the reverse, the king seated, which spread through southern India and was taken to Ceylon by the Chola conquest and adopted locally. The great Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar (Mysore) left a large series of small gold and copper coins with types of various deities.